In Yiddish, it was known as a "קאַלענדאַר" or “Kalandar.” Jewish calendars took off as must-have consumer items among Eastern European Jews especially in the 19th century.
They included dates of fairs, Christian holidays, birthdays of both Provo Slav and Catholic saints as well advertisements and a fair amount of Jewish humor - everything one might need to know before doing business or simply walking the streets, just in case one gets caught in a Pogrom.
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A Jewish calendar for 1876-77, printed in Zitomer
(Photo: National Library Collection)
Prof. Natti Cohen, Associate Professor at the Center for Yiddish Studies at Bar Ilan University has researched these calendars: “It was generally educated people who owned these calendars. The Jewish calendars were a kind of imitation of other calendars that were fashionable at the time, but they included much more information that the community desperately needed.
‘Public’ calendars graced synagogue walls and displayed customs, both general and those of that synagogue. Everyone had access to these calendars and anyone who didn’t understand them, was sure to find someone happy to explain it to them.”
Calendars have been the source of a broad variety of information for hundreds of years. More so since the invention of the printing press. Western countries sold “almanacs” detailing information about astronomy (i.e., sunrise and sunset, moonrise and moonset times) – very helpful for those travelling the roads or the seas. From the mid-19th century, calendars started catching on in Jewish communities.
They included scores, sometimes hundreds, of pages in Yiddish – currency exchange rates, weights and measures, postal service and train ticket prices. They included also content designed to enrich one’s Jewish and general history. Each calendar editor would do their best to provide unique information. Calendars would thus often provide tips, literary creations and pearls of wisdom.
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Calendar from 1873-74, printed in Romm print in Vilna
(Photo: National Library Collection)
Calendar from 5634 (1873-74), Vilna, The Widow and Brothers Romm Publishing House, Vilna
Prof. Cohen explains: “This calendar, published by one of the world’s most famous Jewish printing presses, as in all calendars from the period, prints its pages divided into the ‘Jewish side’ and the ‘Christian side’ i.e., both Provo Slav and Catholic. They would list the date according to both the Gregorian and Julian calendar used by the Russians.”
“The calendars noted Jewish dates such as Rosh Hodesh, the weekly Torah Portion as well as essential ‘cultic’ information. Catholic and Provo Slav holidays were also noted, alongside birthdays of some Christian saints.”
Why would a mitzvah-keeping Jew from Lviv need to know when Easter falls?
“Jews were often merchants, so they’d need to know if there was no point setting out on the road if there’s no one do to business with. Also, at holidays like Easter, there was a good chance of unrest and Jews knew not to leave their homes on these holidays. We must also remember publications would need to pass the censor and we can assume that this information was compulsory - there are three or four pages in Russian (or Russian in Hebrew script) detailing the members of the Russian Imperial family.”
He adds: “In all the calendars, all the fairs were listed according to geographic locations and Hebrew dates. They also list postal prices - prices for letters, telegraphs and parcels – very important information for merchants. The ‘standard’ calendars used a mixture of Hebrew and Yiddish. More complex calendars had more Yiddish. These differ from similar Hebrew calendars appearing towards at end of the 19th century.”
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Calendar for 1889-90, Vilna, Rosenkranz & Schriftsetze, includes detailed information, important for Observant Jews
(Photo: National Library Collection)
Calendar from 5650 (1889-90), Vilna, Rosenkranz & Schriftsetze
Like in all the calendars, this one notes the time Rosh Hodesh, (the beginning of the new Hebrew month) starts, along with the astrological sign of that month, times fast days begin and when each season (or Tkufah) starts according to the Jewish calendar – Tkufat Tishrei, Tkufat Tevet, Tkufat Nissan and Tkukfat Tamuz.
Calendars from this time also note the times for the New Moon and Kiddush Levana (the recitation of the blessing for the New Moon) and what the Parashat Hashavua (weekly Torah portion) is. Unlike modern Hebrew calendars, they don’t note the times of the beginning and the end of Shabbat.”
Calendar from 5650 (1889-90), Vilna, Rosenkranz & Schriftsetze
“Calendars usually only noted the time of sunset. Everyone knew how long after sunset Shabbat begins and ends.” Cohen continues to explain that “Each Jewish community, would have a synagogue ‘shamash’ going from shop to shop half an hour before Shabbat, telling everyone to hurry up and close up as it’s almost Shabbat. For the stricter ‘Mehadrin’ mitzvah keepers, this calendar gives us the time of Netz HaChama (sunrise) and the latest time the morning Shacharit prayer can be recited.”
Where would people write personal comments on their calendars?
Traditional calendars had 32 densely printed pages, so there just wasn’t any space. As calendars began getting bigger, there would be space left empty with a few lines for each family to write in dates of family births and deaths or other reminders.”
Calendar from 5658 (1897-98), Yitzhak Grunspan, Iași, Romania
As in 95% of the calendars from this time, there was a kind of world chronology which, according to Jewish tradition, begins almost 6000 years ago” Cohen tells us. “Some calendars counted according to the Jewish chronology – from the creation of the world. Others use the Christian dating system from the birth of Jesus. Some calendars tried staying neutral by noting historical events in how many years ago from the present day the events in question occurred.
Calendar from 5658 (1897-98), Yitzhak Grunspan, Iași, Romania
Like in many other calendars, this one provides a weather forecast. The calendar’s creators relied on astronomic sightings, which was widely practiced in 18th century Russia, cross-referencing them with the Hebrew dates. Here is the weather forecast for the month of Sivan in the Hebrew year 5634 (1874) in Vilna. It reads: “Until the 8th - very good air. Until the 18th - rather warm. Until the 24th - thunder storms and until the end of the month – pleasant weather.”
S.J. Abramovich, The Useless Calendar for the Russian Jews, 5367 (1876-77), Zitomer
This calendar was compiled by Shalom Jacob Abramovich, better known by his pen name, Mendele Mocher Sfarim – one of the most prominent writers of the Haskallah (Enlightenment) generation, producing literature in both Hebrew and Yiddish. “As part of his enlightened-utilitarian doctrine, alongside his diverse literary work, he also published six calendars for Russian Jews, which were kind of miniature encyclopedias," Dr. Cohen explains.
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Excerpt from Mendele Mocher Sfarim’s calendar; the bottom of the page displays short explanations about various Jewish dates
(Photo: National Library Collection)
“In the margins of the essential ‘religious’ information, Abramovich included additional information. For example, in the month of Tishrei, he explains about the essence of the Fast of Gedaliah and of Shabbat ‘Shuva’ between Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur. In a section titled ‘The Greatness of the Creator in the Air,' he explains natural phenomena such as wind, rain and rainbows.”
Cohen continues: “He tries to bring the natural world to Jews in cities and towns, by observing the habits of cats and dogs. He explains how to tell when spring is nearly here and what various mammals to during the winter.”
He adds that “The chronology of both Jewish and world history is much more detailed than in other calendars. Abramovich devoted numerous pages to information about the Earth, its features, geography, statistics - in both the general and Jewish contexts. It’s important to mention the economic policies of the Russian Empire which hoped to quickly integrate the Jews as subjects with equal rights.”
Mordechai Spector, Warsaw Jewish Family Calendar,5654 (1893-94) and 5658 (1897-98)
In contrast to the regular 32-page calendars, or even Abramovich’s in book-format calendar with over one hundred pages, the calendars compiled by Yiddish author and cultural activist, Mordechai Spector came to almost 300 pages. “The idea was basically to make the calendar into an actual book, so that even when the year was over, you don’t throw it away, but rather keep it in the cupboard – justifying the accordingly high price-tag.”
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The Warsaw Jewish Family Calendar, 1897-98 by Mordechai Spector
(Photo: National Library Collection)
Spector’s calendars included illustrations and advertisements. They contained whole chapters of history, stories, poems, essays, humorous articles and even jokes – often, as was acceptable at the time – misogynistic.
The practical part also included information about tariffs for the widely used promissory notes, various other tariffs, weights and measures, currency exchange rates and more. Cohen explains: “A further innovation here is advertisements, including for consumer products - in Yiddish, Russian and Polish.”
The researcher has translated two jokes in the 5654 “Warsaw Jewish Family Calendar.”
The first joke: A new rabbi arrives in a village and wanted to get to know the village homeowners. He went into a house where he could hear arguing and asked “Who owns this house?” An old man responded ‘Rabbi, please sit down and wait a moment. My son and daughter-in-law are just addressing this question at the moment.”
The second joke: “Could you please lend me 20 rubles?” a young man asked another. “I haven’t had the honor of knowing you” replied the other. “That’s why I asked you. People who do know me won’t lend my anything.”
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Advertisement for the K. Sweitlicki factory manufacturing pumps and machines in Warsaw
(Photo: National Library Collection)
Warsaw’s “Bikur Holim” Hygiene Information Calendar for the year 5669 (1808-9)
Calendars in Yiddish were generally produced by publishers, printing houses, cultural activists or writer. Primarily to market themselves, companies and organizations did the same. One such organization was “Bikur Cholim Klali”, a health organization on Grzybowska Street, at the very heart of early 20th century Jewish Warsaw.
In addition to all the “regular” information, this calendar listed “loyal subjects” to whom sick people who were poor could turn to for help. The calendar also has a very long list skin doctors, eye doctors, women’s doctors etc., alongside reception hours.
“Yiddish calendars often devoted space to health, first aid, identifying illnesses and making home remedies. This calendar
sought to convey hygiene rules, addressing the importance of maintaining cleanliness, changing clothes and bedding. Medical tips were also provided: 'From a hygiene perspective, it is advisable that the patient lie in bed only with his nightshirt to his skin' referring to long nightgowns worn my men at the time."
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Advertisement for a restaurant owned by Y. Rubenstein, excerpt from a Warsaw calendar
(Photo: National Library Collection)
He notes that “Apparently in the interests of modesty, the calendar advises women wear a further garment over their nightgowns as well as a head-covering. Either way, it says not to wear socks or trousers in bed.
The calendar also contains advice which was likely not realistic: ‘the sick person’s room must be large enough to be aired quickly.’ Further advice – or more correctly warnings – concerned children studying in school or heder, clothing, eating and sleeping etc. Pneumonia patients were also advised against drinking alcohol.”
The calendar also contains slogans, possibly subliminal advertising, including: “Cocoa beans are cheap to buy, tasty and are great for breakfast” or “Chocolate for every child every day – a well-known source of nutrition.” Cohen explains that chocolate was expensive at the time and branding it as “healthy” for children must have advanced sales.
Kadima Calendar 5672 (1912-13)
As secularization spread among 19th century Eastern European Jews, ideological, political (mainly nationalist) ideas started appearing in the calendars. The love of Israel, Zionism and Aliya started making inroads. The “Kadima” calendar is a good example.
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List of exchange rates of foreign currency to the ruble, excerpt from 1876-77 calendar, Zitomer
(Photo: National Library Collection)
“Although it’s in Yiddish, we can assume that the Zionist movement helped fund this and similar such calendars” says Prof. Cohen. “Alongside general world history and the history of the Jewish People, it also includes the relatively short ‘Chronology of Zionism’.
It lists leaders and intellectuals such as Herzl, Aaron David Gordon, Moshe Leib Lilienblum, Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer and Jewish philanthropists such as Moses Montefiore and Ze'ev Wissotzky.”
The calendar included explanations of the leading Jewish Zionist organizations such as the Alliance, ICA, organizations promoting the Hebrew language in Russia and more. He adds that “the calendar also had a map of the Land of Israel with small captions about each Jewish colony.
Rishon LeZion for example is, described as “An hour and a half from Jaffa. Established by Russian Jews in 1882. Size: 12,700 dunam. There’s a winery and it’s the center of the wine industry. Population: 66 families.”
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Train ticket prices, excerpt from 1876-74 calendar, Vilna
(Photo: National Library Collection)
Prof. Cohen has lectured on the Yiddish calendars in the years 1870-1914 as a source of useful information. He’s a member of the council of the National Authority for Yiddish Culture and winner of the Mendele Mocher Sfarim Prize, 2022.
How did a born and bred Jerusalemite come to research Yiddish?
“My parents were born in Jerusalem and, as children, they refrained from speaking Yiddish outdoors. This was common at the time. Yiddish was regarded as a sign of the Jewish People’s ‘nerdy’, Diaspora past. In the Land of Israel, we speak the revived Hebrew language.”
“My love of Yiddish started when my grandmothers would talk to me in their mother tongue. When I was 16, I bought a Shalom Aleichem book at Book Week. I was at the Gymnasia and I was very proud of my fluent Yiddish. My friends thought it was exotic.”
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Advertisement for A. Bernstien Metal Furniture from 1893-4 calendar
(Photo: National Library Collection)
“To his dying day, my late father thought that I should work in a profession in which I could earn a living” he says with a smile.”
In 1983, Cohen began studying in the Yiddish and Jewish History departments at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem where he carried on to complete Masters and doctoral degrees. His research focuses on the cultural history of the Jews of Eastern Europe before the Holocaust.
Did your parents eventually come to see Yiddish as respectable?
“When I completed my PhD, my parents were quick to print business cards boasting the title. ‘Dr’.”